Nursing theorists ab Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Nursing theorists ab - Essay Example Dorothea Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Nursing theory aimed at making encouraging patients be independent. Primary care, rehabilitation, and personal well being must have been the factors behind this theory. According to Dorothea, self-care is a human need, so nurses should come up with interventions to manage or provide actions of self-care for patients to maintain health and recover. This way, the recovery process will be much faster. The Cultural Care theory by Madeleine Leininger is based on providing patients with cultural care. The diverse cultural backgrounds are the main factors behind this theory. Leininger advocates for care aimed at fitting or having beneficial outcome and meaning to people of similar or different cultural backgrounds. Cultural care accommodation, preservation, and re-patterning are main pillars of this theory. How people react and relate to stress, and the dynamic reconstituting factors were the driving force behind Betty Neuman’s Systems Model theory (Taylor and Lillis, 2001). Betty focuses on how stress impacts on health and how nurses can to retain stability in the body system by helping patients adjust to stress and fight the stimuli producing

Explaining exceptions to Dollo’s Law

Explaining exceptions to Dollo’s Law Explaining exceptions to Dollo’s Law a review of the concepts of constraint and contingency. In 1890 Louis Dollo a Belgian palaeontologist, came up with the theory that evolution is irreversible, expanding on the work of Edgar Quinet, a historian who had first pondered this theory (Chopra Rogers, 2013) . Thus explaining that the constraint of evolution that it is irreversible and if certain traits are lost this effects the contingency of evolution, thus past changes having an effect on the present and future of the species, this could by chance may or may not have an effect on the re-evolution of certain traits. The theory states that evolution is irreversible because of the structures and functions lost in the line of evolution cannot return in the lineages that they were once lost in e.g tails in our monkey like ancestors. This therefore suggests that genes formally required to code for adaptive traits during selection pressures will become non-functional when selection pressure is low or non-existent (Marshall, et al., 1994). The repercussions of this are that any trait coded by these genes will be lost forever and cannot ever occur again in the same lineage according to Dollo’s law (Marshall, et al., 1994). In recent times many papers have been published that have disputed this law. There has been some work done on seeing if the constraints of evolution hinder further adaptation and whether this can either facilitate or hinder the re-emergence of the original/ancestral trait (Yedid et al. 2008). This essay will look at some of the cases where this law potentially does not apply and discuss how relevant Dollo’s law is in biology, and if it is relevant at which point does the law either become to ambiguous or too specific. We will discuss Dollo’s law at two different bases; the Genetic and Morphological. Under Dollo’s law the genetic basis of this is that if a gene is lost due to natural selection and bred out of a population, the trait coded by the gene is lost and cannot be regained in the same lineage over evolutionary time. A Study to test the genetics of Dollo’s law was tested on the genome coding for the sex combs in Drosophila bipectinata and its close relative Drosophila malerkotliana (Seher, et al., 2012). The study found that some the genes that code for sex comb may alter the structures dramatically (even in a single inversion) and some that had multiple inversions of the chromosomal structure which had no difference in the sex comb morphology. They then suggested that Dollo’s law should follow molecular pathways rather than just the genes that code for them. This is due to many genes being regulatory genes, which can sometimes when activated; open up many pathways to code for different cellular processes. This can then have an effect in gene expressio n and therefore a trait previously lost in evolutionary time is now being expressed due to these â€Å"nexus† regulatory genes (Seher, et al., 2012). The can be demonstrated in another experiment where mouse inductive signals that gave rise to stem cells providing teeth, where cultured with graphs of chick oral dermis. The result found that the Chicks oral tissue actually started to form enamel organs and even in some case small malformed teeth (Marshall, et al., 1994). In a review published by Bull Charnov it says that In relation to irreversibility there are two generalisation from there analysis. 1) â€Å"selection of intermediate phenotypes is critical to evolutionary transitions whenever the two phenotypes are so different that multiple mutations are required to change from one to another† (Bull Charnov, 1985) , and 2) â€Å"a second principle common to several examples is that the genome may progressively accommodate a character state the loner it is maintaine d† (Bull Charnov, 1985). These two generalities the summary was that irreversible evolution is founded on the dependence of the biological details of the system, with some more general rules that apply at a much less focused level. The constraints with looking at the genetic level are that we are looking literally â€Å"under the microscope† and it is fine picking each detail of gene selection and deletion and applying this to Dollo’s law. But as said before genes can take many pathways due to nexes regulatory genes, so who is to say that a feature i.e. eyes lost in a cave fish (speaking hypothetically) came back in a recent form but using different genes to cause the eye. Is this against Dollo’s law? Or because of the different genetic pathway it is just a natural progression in evolution. Using morphology as a basis with regards to Dollo’s law it states that any morphological trait that is lost in a lineage cannot ever be re-expressed for example the hind legs in cetaceans. We cannot talk about morphological exceptions to Dollo’s rule without mentioning Atavism. Atavism by definition is a revision/reappearance to an ancestral characteristic previously lost in the evolutionary pathway (Biology-online, 2012). Atavisms arise normally due to a gene recombination or a gene mutation that enables a previous trait to be expressed (Hall, 2010). Hind leg extension in vertebrates has been well documented. In a study by Bejder Hall, they mention atavisms and the development of limb bud in cetaceans, snakes and legless lizards (Bejder Hall, 2002). They aren’t as rare as one might think this is due to all these animal species having being evolved from limbed ancestors, and as previously mentioned that genes can code for a multiple of different functions. Atav isms in whales normally occur in the rudiments of the pelvic girdle, the best case of this has been found in sperm and blue whales. The incident rate of atavisms in adult sperm whales is about 1:5000 (Bejder Hall, 2002). In the Individuals found the atavisms skeletal processes are found to be almost complete, even both hind limb have been found in a female humpback whale when normally present is cartilaginous femur (Bejder Hall, 2002). Because these vestigial limbs actually have no function can these actually be considered against Dollo’s law? Or because that previously forgotten traits are being expressed does that counter Dollo’s law? Another morphological feature that contracts Dollo’s is re-evolution of shell coiling in gastropods (Collin Cipriani, 2003). The trait was thought to have died out around 10mya but a study has shown that It can be re-evolved using the same genes that gastropods has at that time. There are two hypothesis put forward by this ide a; either that genes that signal for shell coiling have a number of function have been kept in there entirety, or that Trochita has developed a new pathway to gain the coiling trait completely different to its ancestor (Collin Cipriani, 2003). There has been evidence to support the second theory due to the coiling being superficially different to other gastropod species (Collin Cipriani, 2003). Finally an example that is a little closer to home is that there is new evidence of muscle reversions in the primate phylogeny. There have been 220 character state changes that are optimised in the parsimonious 28 of there have been evolutionary reversions, 6 of these have through evolution have contributed to human musculature and 9 of these have directly gone against Dollo’s law (Diogo Wood, 2012). The one particular case of violating of Dollo’s law for muscle reversion is in the subtribe hominina. In this case both the rhomboideus major and rhomboideus minor muscle are fou nd in an ancestral clade. This was then lost and the Rhomboidus muscles became the more distinct muscle in the Cercopithecinae, the ancestral muscle formation then has re-appeared in the Hominina there by going against Dollo’s law (Diogo Wood, 2012). this constant muscle evolution and re evolution causing the muscle to constantly re configure in primate to truly go against Dollo’s law at both eh morphological and genetic level there must be the same genetic pathways and selection pressures present to make this change a selective and adaptive advantage to truly call this change re-evolution. In summary to this review all of the studies all show great strengths and flaws with the methods and rules abided by in Dollo’s law. Constraints and contingency way heavily on if Dollo’s law is applied, because pathways may be constrained but if they actually help the re evolution of a trait there still may not be a selection pressure for these and this does not apply with the constraints of evolution, there-fore if there is no selection to me it feels like a random mutation with no beneficial attributes to the animal’s evolution. Law I feel is a strong word to use because with law there needs to be the same degree of lenience with this. This is due to papers on the genetic level saying that if the same pathways are used this means that this is against Dollo’s law, but if the same trait appears again but using a different pathway this does not, even if the new trait is a functional advantage. I believe the only way that a species can truly re-evolve traits is that the trait that has been re-evolved needs to be on a functional basis. The functional basis is that under Dollo’s law even if a limb has arisen That limb would need to be functional i.e. have a selection pressure causing this to be an advantage evolutionally. This is the only way that I can see of being able to out rightly say if something is against Dollo’s law. Word count: 1565 References : Bejder, L. Hall, B., 2002. Limbs in whales and limblessness in other vertebrates: mechanisms of evolutionary and developmental transformation and loss. Evolution Development, 4(6), pp. 445-458. Biology-Online 2014. Atavism definition from Biology-Online.org. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Atavism. [Accessed 27 February 2014]. Bull, J. Charnov, E., 1985. On Irreversible Evolution. Evolution, 39(5), pp. 1149-1155. Chopra, S. Rogers, K., 2013. Dollos law (biology) Encyclopedpia Britanica. [Online] Available at: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/168293/Dollos-law [Accessed 24 febuary 2014]. Collin, R. Cipriani, R., 2003. Dollos Law and the re-evolution of shell coiling. Proceeding of the royal society of biological sciences, pp. 2551-2555. Diogo, R. Wood, B., 2012. Violation of Dollos Law: Evidence of muscle reversions in primate phylogeny and their implications for understanding iof ther intigeny evolution, and anatomical variations of modern humans. Evolution, 66(10), pp. 3267-3276. Hall, B., 2010. Atavisms. [Online] Available at: yadda.icm.edu.pl/yadda/element/bwmeta1.elementaab2/main.pdf [Accessed 27 02 2014]. Marshall, C., Raff, E. Raff, R., 1994. Dollos law and the death and resurrection of genes. Proceeding Of The Natural Academy Of Sciences Of The United States Of America, Volume 91, pp. 12283-12287. Seher, T. et al., 2012. Genetic Basis of a Violation of Dollo’s Law: Re-Evolution of Rotating Sex Combs. Genetics, 192(2), pp. 1465-1475. Yedid, G., C. A. Ofria, and R. E. Lenski., 2008. â€Å"Historical and Contingent Factors Affect Re-Evolution of a Complex Feature Lost during Mass Extinction in Communities of Digital Organisms.† Journal of Evolutionary Biology 21, no 5. pp 1335-1357.

The Evil Eye Essay -- essays research papers

The Evil Eye Edgar Allen Poe shows us the dark part of human kind. Conflict with in ones self, state of madness, and emotional break down all occur within this short story. The narrator of the story is a mad man that is haunted by his idea that the old man has an evil eye. Through the first person narrator, Edgar Allan Poe’s "The Tell-Tale Heart" illustrates how man’s imagination is capable of being so vivid that it profoundly affects people’s lives. The manifestation of the narrator’s imagination unconsciously plants seeds in his mind, and those seeds grow into an unmanageable situation for which there is no room for reason and which culminates in murder. The fixation on the old man’s vulture-like eye forces the narrator to concoct a plan to eliminate the old man. The narrator confesses the sole reason for killing the old man is his eye. The narrator begins his tale of betrayal by trying to convince the reader he is not insane, but the reader quickly surmises the narrator indeed is out of control. The fact that the old man’s eye is the only motivation to murder proves the narrator is so mentally unstable that he must search for justification to kill. In his mind, he rationalizes murder with his own unreasonable fear of the eye. The narrator wrestles with conflicting feelings of responsibility to the old man and feelings of ridding his life of the man’s "Evil Eye". Although afflicted with overriding fear and derangement, the narrator still acts wit...

Terroism Yesterday, Future & Chronology

Terrorism Introduction to Terrorism Susanne Prestininzi April 19, 2013 4:21 pm One cannot avoid long-standing debates, going back as far as Aristotle, over when it is politically and morally acceptable to use unconventional tactics such as violence and fear to bring about political and social change. History is replete with the ideas of great thinkers who believed that, under the right circumstances, unconventional tactics were not only smart, but a moral or civic duty.Religious leaders over the centuries have contributed thoughts about when unjust warfare is just, when â€Å"holy terror† is justified, and military thinkers have advocated less-than-honorable tactics. Most terrorism throughout history has been directed against governments also called political or revolutionary terrorism, but terrorism can also be global or take the forms of state terrorism or state-sponsored terrorism. These latter types occur when governments turn on their own citizens, or try to stir up troub le among the citizenry of another nation.In fact, it was state terrorism that put modern use of the term â€Å"terrorism† in our English vocabulary. Title 22 of the U. S. Code, Section 2656f(d) defines terrorism as â€Å"premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience. † (National Institute of Justice) The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines terrorism as â€Å"the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives. (fbi. gov) Both definitions of terrorism share a common theme: the use of force intended to influence or instigate a course of action that furthers a political or social goal. In most cases, NIJ researchers adopt the FBI definition, which stresses methods over motivations and is generally accepted by law enforcement communities. The first story isn’t terrorism. According to the definition, is this terrorism? No, this action is not terrorism. The group who committed the action had an objective, which was to push the US out of Iraq. This is the nly trademark consistent with a terrorist activity. The target was solely a military target carrying U. S. soldiers and the terrorists employed a conventional weapon. Civilians were not targeted during this operation. Therefore, this action was a guerilla military action employed against an opposition force in a realm of conflict. These individuals were freedom fighters seeking to control their country. If I am wrong in my understanding it may be considered domestic terrorism. The second story again isn’t terrorism. This was a U. S. issile strike killed 25 people in Pakistan's North Waziristan region that signaled that Washington's use of drones against militants along the Afghan border will continue desp ite intensifying opposition from Pakistani leaders. The third one definitely is an act of terrorism by a suicide bomber terrorist. A suicide bomber steered a truck loaded with the equivalent of six tons of TNT down the airport road in Beirut, Lebanon. He plowed into the four-story barracks where more than 300 U. S. troops from a U. N. peacekeeping mission slept and detonated what the FBI called the largest non-nuclear bomb in history.This is an example of â€Å"Tactical Terror† in order for the Free Islamic Revolutionary Movement in order to bring international attention to their cause. The last story of Columbine was an act of domestic terrorism. It was an act of terrorism. However, most people wouldn't think of it as a terrorist act. Terrorism mostly has to do with political ideology; however, it’s not restricted to that. In a perverted way, the perpetrators of Columbine were making a statement, and that is terrorism. There are several different typologies of terrori sm Terrorism classified by place 1.Domestic — by residents of a country within that country 2. .International — by representatives of a country against another country 3. Non-state — extremism and revolution for its own sake 4. State-sponsored — by a government against its own people or in support of international terrorism against another government 5. Internecine — conflict that spills over into another country or fought on foreign soil Terrorism Classified by Personality Trait 1. Crazies — strong survival attitude, but not based in reality; self-centered; goals clear only to perpetrator; irrational and unpredictable; strikes at random 2.Crusaders — sacrificial, death attitude; blends politics and religion; seldom willing to negotiate; task-oriented and indifferent to risk; seeks publicity and largest group possible. 3. Criminals — strong self-preservation attitude; selfish; seeks gain and is task-oriented; avoids high risk; predictably targets small groups (Hacker 1976) Terrorism Classified by Purpose 1. Political — for ideological and political purposes 2. Nonpolitical — for private purposes or gain 3. Quasi-terrorism — skyjacking and hostage taking 4. Limited political — ideological but not revolutionary 5.Official or state — used by nation against nation or people Terrorism Classified by Target 1. Mass terror — targets general population 2. Dynastic terror — selective targeting of individuals or groups 3. Random terror — targets anybody in wrong place at wrong time 4. Focused random terror — targets specific public places frequented by opposition 5. Tactical terror — attacks government or politically attractive targets (Combs 2003) Terrorism Classified by Issue 1. Revolutionary — aims to replace the existing government by drawing out repressive responses which can be exposed as inhumane (Red Army Faction, PLO, Hizballah) 2. Political — heavily armed groups tending to be focused around supremacy, government intrusion, or religious revisionism (Aryan Nation, Posse Comitatus, Freemen) 3. Nationalist — promotes the interests of a minority or religious group that has been persecuted under majority rule (Sikh radicals, Muslim fundamentalism) 4. Cause-Based — groups devoted to a social or religious cause using violence to address their grievances (Islamic Holy War, Abortion clinic bombings) 5. Environmental — groups dedicated to slowing down development they believe is harming animals (Animal Liberation Front, Earth 1st) 6.State-sponsored — when a repressive regime forces its citizens into total obedience (Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, Peru, Iraq, Sudan, Haiti) 7. Nuclear — outlaw states possessing nuclear threats (Libya, North Korea) 8. Genocide– when a government seeks to wipe out a minority group in its territory (Cambodia, Rwanda, Bosnia, Iraq, Tur key) Reference Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century Cynthia C. COmbs www. nij. com www. cia. gov Retrieved: April 19, 2013 3:12 pm You +1'd this publicly. Undo

Quantitative Technique

What is a linear programming problem? Discuss the scope and role of linear programming in solving management problems. Discuss and describe the role of linear programming in managerial decision-making bringing out limitations, if any. 2. Explain the concept and computational steps of the simplex method for solving linear programming problems. How would you identify whether an optimal solution to a problem obtained using simplex algorithm is unique or not? a)What is the difference between a feasible solution, a basic feasible solution, and an optimal solution of a linear programming problem? )What is the difference between simplex solution procedure for a `maximization’ and a `minimization’ problem? c)Using the concept of net contribution, provide an intuitive explanation of why the criterion for optimality for maximization problem is different from that of minimization problems. Outline the steps involved in the simplex algorithm for solving a linear programming maximiz ation problem. Also define the technical terms used therein. 3. â€Å"Linear programming is one of the most frequently and successfully employed Operations Research techniques to managerial and business decisions. ’ Elucidate this statement with some examples. †¦2†¦ †¦2†¦ 4. Describe the transporation problem and give its mathematical model. Explain, by taking an illustration, the North-West Corner Rule, the Least Cost Method and the Vogel’s Approximation Method to obtain the initial feasible solution to a transportation problem. Discuss the various methods of finding initial feasible solution of a transportation problem and state the advantages, disadvantages, and areas of application for them. 5. What is an assignment problem? It is true to say that it is a special case of the transportation problem? Explain. How can you formulate an assignment problem as a standard linear programming problem? Illustrate. What do you understand by an assignment problem? Give a brief outline for solving it. 6. What are different types of inventories? Explain. What functions does inventory perform? State the two basic inventory decisions management must make as they attempt to accomplish the functions of inventory just described by you. 7. What is queuing theory? What type of questions are sought to be answered in analyzing a queuing system? Give a general structure of the queuing system and explain. Illustrate some queuing situations. What is queuing theory? In what types of problem situations can it be applied successfully? Discuss giving examples. 8. What is a replacement problem? Describe some important replacement situations and policies. Briefly explain the costs which are relevant to decisions for replacement of depreciable assets. Illustrate their behaviour and explain how the optimal time for replacement of an asset can be determined. †¦3†¦ †¦3†¦ 9. What kinds of decision-making situations may be analysed using PERT and CPM techniques? State the major similarities between PERT and CPM. Under what circumstances is CPM a better technique of project management than PERT? A construction company has received a contract to build an office complex. It has frequently engaged itself in constructing such buildings. Which of the two network techniques, PERT and CPM, should in your opinion, be employed by the company? Why? 10. Describe the steps involved in the process of decision making. What are pay-off and regret functions? How can entries in a regret table be derived from a pay-off table? 11. What do you understand by Markov processes? In what areas of management can they be applied successfully? What do you understand by transition probabilities? Is the assumption of stationary transition probabilities realistic, in your opinion? Why or why not? 12. Explain how the probability tree helps to understand the problem of Markov processes. Explain the method of calculation of ending up in each absorbing state when a chain beings in a particular transient state. What is fundamental matrix of Markov chains? What does it calculate? 13. What is simulation? Describe the simulation process. State the major two reasons for using simulation to solve a problem. What are the advantages and limitations of simulation? `When it becomes difficult to use an optimization technique for solving a problem, one has to resort to simulation’’. Discuss. â€Å"Simulation is typically the process of carrying out sampling experiments on the models of the system rather than the system itself. ’’ Elucidate this statement by taking some examples. †¦4†¦ †¦4†¦ 14 . A company has three offers for its existing equipment in one of the divisions. The first buyer is willing to pay Rs. 50,000 at the end of 8 years’ period. The second buyer offers Rs. 39,000—consisting of an immediate payment of Rs. 14,000 and Rs. 25,000 after 6 years. The third buyer agrees to buy the equipment for Rs. 29,000 payable right away. Which is the best offer for the company if it can earn an interest @ 8% per annum on the money received? 15. What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative techniques of forecasting. When is a qualitative model appropriate? Briefly discuss the Delphi method of making forecasts. 16. a)How do you distinguish between resource leveling and resource allocation problems? State and explain an algorithm for resource allocation. b)Explain the following as they are used in PERT/CPM (i)Beta distribution, and (ii) Budget over-run. †¦5†¦ †¦5†¦ 17. The following table gives data on normal time and cost, and crash time and cost for a project. `Duration (Weeks)Total Cost (Rs) Activity NormalCrashNormalCrash 1 – 232300450 2 – 333 75 75 2 – 453200300 2 – 544120120 3 – 441100190 4 – 632 90130 5 – 6 31 60110 i)Draw the network and find out the critical path and the normal project duration. ii)Find out the total float associated with each activity. iii)If the indirect costs are Rs. 100 per week, find out the optimum duration by crashing and the corresponding project costs. iv)With the crash duration indicated, what would be the minimum crash duration possible, ignoring indirect costs? 8. What is a `game’ in game theory? What are the properties of a game? Explain the â€Å"best strategy’’ on the basis of minimax criterion of optimality. Describe the maximin and minimax principles of game theory. †¦6†¦ †¦6†¦ 19. Explain the steps involved in solut ion to dynamic programming problems. Explain the following in the context of dynamic programming: (a)Stages (b)States (c)Pay-off function (d)Recursive relationship 20. A political campaign for election to the parliament is entering its final stage and pre-poll surveys are medicating a very close contest in a certain constituency. One of the candidates in the constituency has sufficient funds to give five full-page advertisements in four different areas. Based on the polling information, an estimate has been made of the approximate number (in thousands) of additional votes that can be polled in different areas. This is shown below. No. ofArea Commercial AdsABCD 0 0 0 0 0 1913117 21517115 31212325 425232129 531252733 Using dynamic programming, determine how the five commercial ads be distributed between the four areas so as to maximize the estimated number of votes.